Adolescents’ intentional and unintentional cyberhate exposure in Estonia, Finland, Germany, Italy, Poland, and Portugal: The role of perceived discrimination and digital literacy

Cyberhate refers to hateful and biased online content that targets people based on their group membership. This study differentiates between intentional and unintentional cyberhate exposure and examines the role of perceived discrimination, with five dimensions of digital literacy as mediators. Data were collected via a three-wave longitudinal survey conducted over the span of three years (2021–2023) with 2,660 adolescents (aged 14–17 in W3) from six European countries (Estonia, Finland, Germany, Italy, Poland, and Portugal). A cross-lagged panel model shows that perceived discrimination predicts both types of cyberhate exposure and that there are differences in digital literacy dimensions. Technical and operational skills increased intentional cyberhate exposure. Programming skill increased both types of cyberhate exposure. Communication and interaction literacy decreased intentional cyberhate exposure. And information navigation literacy decreased unintentional cyberhate exposure. The indirect effects were analogous – technical and operational skills led to higher un/intentional cyberhate exposure in the preceding year, whereas communication and interaction literacy led to less intentional exposure, and information, navigation, and processing literacy led to less unintentional exposure in the last year. The implications for digital literacy curricula are discussed. Cyberhate harms youth and society, particularly discriminated adolescents, who face a higher risk of exposure. Digital literacy affects their experiences, but the impact of its various dimensions on un/intentional cyberhate exposure is still not fully understood. We advance the social compensation hypothesis by applying it to cyberhate and differentiating intentional and unintentional cyberhate exposure; revealing the distinct roles of digital literacy dimensions in adolescents’ and discriminated adolescents’ experiences through a multidimensional and longitudinal approach. The findings stress the need for digital literacy education beyond basic functional skills, focusing on context-specific literacies. Emphasis on digital communication and information-navigation literacies can help teachers, youth workers, and caregivers protect vulnerable adolescents from cyberhate exposure.