Information Warfare and Influence Operations

Information warfare and influence operations (IWIO) have emerged as central concerns in international security studies, particularly following high-profile events such as the Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. These operations, which include propaganda, misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation, have demonstrated the capacity to destabilize democratic institutions, polarize societies, and incite civil unrest. IWIO has become a global phenomenon, with increasing activity targeting elections and political discourse, often orchestrated by state actors including Russia, China, and Iran. U.S. military doctrine informs much of the current understanding and definitions of IWIO. Whether in the context of the battlefield, traditional propaganda outlets such as newspapers and television, or on social media, military doctrinal conceptualizations elementally contribute to academic IWIO theory. Given the evolving innovations in technology, the discussion of IWIO centers around cyber-enabled influnece operations (CEIO). CEIO constitutes influencing society with propaganda techniques conducted through the cyber domain, especially on social media. These CEIO campaigns include the proliferation of disinformation, misinformation, and in certain instances, malinformation, through both artificial intelligence methods and algorithmic manipulation. State and nonstate actors deploy these influence operations on media platforms such as X (formerly Twitter), Facebook, and TikTok. Since much of IWIO is designed to affect, influence, and degrade decision-making capabilities in people across all of society, comprehending the far-reaching nature of these methods enables identifying tactics for defense in open democracies and policymaking for this insidious form of hybrid warfare. Cognitive warfare presents unique challenges for study as it affects individuals and entire populations, also influencing decision-making, intellect, emotions, and behavior. IWIO tactics exploit digital ecosystems to manipulate public opinion and constitute a destabilizing factor to global security. With only a nascent understanding of the far-reaching consequences of IWIO waged in the cyber domain, especially CEIO, where original propaganda techniques have been transformed for the Internet and cyberspace, their effects on society need to be explored further to protect people around the globe.