Full-Spectrum Propaganda in the Social Media Era

How do states wage propaganda campaigns in the social media era? Existing studies often investigate either covert fake accounts on social media platforms or overt propaganda on traditional broadcast media. We argue that states now wage integrated campaigns, using multiple media channels that cite each other directly, or parallel campaigns, using multiple channels concurrently but independently of one another. We refer to these as “full-spectrum propaganda campaigns.” To advance the literature on state-backed propaganda, we categorize media channels along two dimensions: whether they are overt or covert, and whether broadcast or social. We use this framework, alongside evidence from leaked documents, to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of different channels and evaluate why states may choose one over another. We then show how states use multiple channels together in full-spectrum propaganda campaigns through illustrative case studies of the Chinese Communist Party and RIA FAN (Russian Federal News Agency).